The New Poets, Three Prose Writers & Conclusion
This blog forms a part of the thinking activity assigned for Paper No. 202, Unit 4: Three Prose Writers, The ‘New’ Poets, and the Conclusion. Task assigned by Prakruti ma'am.
Q.1 Write a critical note on any one of the poems by Nissim Ezekiel.
Answer :
Nissim Ezekiel, often regarded as the father of modern Indian English poetry, is known for his sharp irony, urban sensibility, and the ability to blend personal and social concerns with universal reflections. His poem “Latter-Day Psalms” is a remarkable example of his use of irony and satire to comment on the contradictions of modern life.
The very title of the poem is ironic. By alluding to the Biblical Psalms—which are traditionally songs of devotion, praise, and supplication to God—Ezekiel immediately sets up a contrast. The “latter-day” psalms are no longer purely spiritual hymns; instead, they are marked by doubt, skepticism, and disillusionment that reflect the fractured consciousness of modern times.
The poem addresses the dilemmas of contemporary existence. Ezekiel critiques the hollowness of religious practices that often fail to provide true moral or spiritual guidance. Instead of uniting people in faith, modern religion has been corrupted by hypocrisy, superstition, and self-interest. Through his witty, sardonic tone, Ezekiel questions whether modern humanity is capable of genuine devotion when materialism and cynicism dominate life.
At a deeper level, “Latter-Day Psalms” also reflects Ezekiel’s personal struggle as a poet and as a man situated between tradition and modernity. His Jewish heritage, his Indian identity, and his exposure to Western thought create a tension that is visible in the poem. While the psalms of the past represented certainty and absolute faith, the modern version he presents speaks more of doubt, irony, and fractured belief.
Stylistically, Ezekiel uses free verse and conversational language, which strip away the grandiosity of traditional psalms and replace them with everyday realism. His tone oscillates between serious questioning and humorous mockery, thereby capturing the paradoxes of modern spiritual life. The effect is both unsettling and thought-provoking: the reader is made to reflect on the erosion of faith in the modern world, while also recognizing the absurdities of blind devotion.
In conclusion, “Latter-Day Psalms” is not only a parody of traditional religious hymns but also a modern meditation on faith, doubt, and human contradictions. It encapsulates Ezekiel’s strength as a poet who uses irony and satire to probe the spiritual and cultural condition of modern man. The poem shows how far contemporary life has drifted from the certainties of the past, leaving behind a psalm that is both deeply human and profoundly ironic.
Q.2 Write a critical note on Kamala Das' An Introduction.
Answer :
Kamala Das, one of the most powerful voices in Indian English poetry, is known for her confessional style, fearless self-expression, and exploration of female identity. Her poem “An Introduction”, taken from the collection Summer in Calcutta (1965), is an autobiographical and feminist statement that challenges the patriarchal order and asserts the right of a woman to speak, write, and live freely.
The poem begins with Das situating herself within a social and political context. She mentions the names of politicians and emphasizes her awareness of the world around her, which underlines that women are not confined to domestic spheres alone. This is followed by her assertion of identity through the line “I am Indian, very brown, born in Malabar”, where she stresses her cultural rootedness while simultaneously engaging with English, the language of the colonizer. By doing so, she declares her right to use English as a medium of self-expression, famously stating that the language may not be perfect, but it is hers.
A significant aspect of the poem is its critique of patriarchy. Das recounts how men in her life—family, society, or authority figures—tried to dictate how she should think, behave, or even write. She resists this control and celebrates her own voice. The poem boldly addresses themes of female sexuality and bodily autonomy. She writes with startling honesty about her desires, her body, and her longing for love, breaking the taboos that silenced women in Indian society.
Stylistically, “An Introduction” is written in free verse with a conversational, almost confessional tone. This lack of rigid form mirrors the poet’s rejection of conventional restrictions. Her language is direct, raw, and unapologetic, which enhances the intensity of her protest and makes her voice authentic.
At its heart, the poem is both personal and universal. It is Kamala Das’s own story, but it also speaks for countless women whose identities and desires have been suppressed. It critiques not only gender roles but also linguistic and cultural hierarchies, making it a pioneering feminist text in Indian English literature.
In conclusion, “An Introduction” is a powerful manifesto of identity and resistance. It reveals Kamala Das’s courage in breaking social and literary conventions and establishes her as a poet who gave voice to the silenced experiences of women. The poem remains significant not only as a personal confession but also as a broader feminist declaration of freedom, individuality, and selfhood.
Q.3 Write a note on S. Radhakrishnan’s perspective on Hinduism.
Answer :
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, a distinguished scholar and statesman, was born on September 5, 1888, in Tiruttani, India. He made significant contributions to academia and public service throughout his life. Radhakrishnan served as a professor of philosophy at Mysore University from 1918 to 1921 and at Calcutta University from 1921 to 1931 and again from 1937 to 1941. He also held the position of vice chancellor at Andhra University from 1931 to 1936.
In his influential work The Hindu View of Life (1929), Radhakrishnan begins with the fundamental question: “What is Hinduism?” Interestingly, he does not provide a direct answer, since the term “Hinduism” was originally coined by outsiders to describe the people and culture of India. Over time, Indians themselves adopted this term to identify their religion and way of life, largely because, despite the diversity of communities and practices within India, they all share a common historical, literary, and cultural heritage.
P. Sreenivasulu Reddy, in his article A Critical Analysis of “The Hindu View of Life” by Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, points out that the word “Hindu” was initially geographical rather than religious. It derives from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, the ancient name for the Indus River, and referred to the land and peoples living beyond it, comprising many different tribes, beliefs, and systems of worship. By the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries, the name “Hindustan” came into popular use to designate India as the “land of the Hindus.” Reddy emphasizes that Hinduism cannot be confined to one land, one people, one region, or one rigid religious system. Instead, it transcends boundaries and is better understood as a way of life. Radhakrishnan himself seems to ground this idea in the philosophy of Advaita Vedānta, where he distinguishes between Prakriti (nature) and Brahman (the ultimate reality).
Radhakrishnan further offers a broad comparison between Hinduism and Christianity, addressing questions such as the meaning of dharma and its relevance to the modern world. He interprets Hindu scriptures as reflecting a cyclical worldview—expressed in concepts like the cycle of karma and dharma. For him, intuition serves as both the foundation and outcome of human experience. This understanding also connects to cultural representations, such as the vision of nationhood highlighted in the television series Bharat Ek Khoj.
Nevertheless, Radhakrishnan’s interpretation of Hinduism has become contested in contemporary times. Today, when religion is often deployed as a political instrument—particularly in the case of Hinduism—his writings risk being read as legitimizing the notion of India as a Hindu Rashtra. Furthermore, his emphasis on intuition as a source of truth can be seen as problematic, given modern debates about rationality and empirical knowledge.
Q.4 According to Radhakrishnan, what is the function of philosophy?
Answer :
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, in works like The Hindu View of Life and An Idealist View of Life, explains the function of philosophy in a way that goes beyond abstract speculation. For him, philosophy is not just about intellectual exercises or logical debates—it has a deeper, practical, and spiritual purpose.
Here are the key points about Radhakrishnan’s view on the function of philosophy:
Search for Truth – Philosophy aims at understanding reality as a whole. It does not deal only with fragments of knowledge, like science, but seeks a comprehensive vision of life and existence.
Harmonizing Science, Religion, and Ethics – Philosophy mediates between different spheres of human life. It interprets scientific discoveries, religious experiences, and moral values in a way that makes them coherent and meaningful.
Self-Realization – For Radhakrishnan, philosophy is closely linked to spirituality. It is not just theoretical knowledge (jñāna) but a guide to self-realization. True philosophy helps individuals recognize their deeper identity with Brahman, the ultimate reality, as expressed in Advaita Vedānta.
Practical Value – Philosophy must guide human conduct. It provides direction to our personal and social life, helping us face problems of suffering, conflict, and meaning. In this sense, it is a way of life, not just an academic discipline.
Intuition and Experience – Unlike purely rationalist traditions, Radhakrishnan emphasizes intuition as a valid source of knowledge. Philosophy functions as a means of interpreting these intuitive and spiritual experiences and integrating them into human life.
Q.5 “Change is easy, and as dangerous as it is easy; but stagnation is no less dangerous.” Write a note on Raghunathan’s views of changes which are required the educational/academic and political contexts.
Answer :
Raghunathan’s observation—“Change is easy, and as dangerous as it is easy; but stagnation is no less dangerous”—captures his balanced view of reform. He warns that both extremes, blind change and rigid stagnation, can harm society. Instead, change should be thoughtful, gradual, and guided by values rather than by impulsive imitation or political expediency.
In the educational and academic context, Raghunathan stresses the need for reforms that keep pace with the demands of modern society without abandoning India’s cultural and intellectual heritage. Education should nurture critical thinking, creativity, and moral responsibility rather than being reduced to rote learning or mere preparation for jobs. For him, change in academia must aim at developing holistic individuals who can engage meaningfully with society, not just technocrats or passive followers.
In the political context, he advocates change that strengthens democracy, accountability, and ethical leadership. He cautions against radical shifts driven by populism or ideology, which can destabilize institutions. At the same time, he rejects political stagnation, where outdated structures and practices stifle progress. What is needed, in his view, is reform that adapts to contemporary challenges—such as corruption, inequality, and communal tensions—while preserving democratic principles and constitutional values.
Thus, Raghunathan presents a nuanced philosophy: change must be embraced with caution and direction, while stagnation must be resisted with vision and reform. Progress, in both education and politics, depends on balancing innovation with continuity.
Q.6 The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian is ‘more of a national than personal history.’ Explain.
Answer :
The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian as National History
Nirad C. Chaudhuri’s The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian (1951) is often described as “more of a national than personal history” because the book transcends the boundaries of individual experience and becomes a record of India’s cultural, social, and political life during the late colonial period. While written in autobiographical form, the narrative constantly connects Chaudhuri’s personal growth with the larger story of India’s transformation under British rule.
The text is not merely a record of Chaudhuri’s childhood, youth, and intellectual development, but also a detailed commentary on the impact of colonialism on Indian society. His descriptions of Calcutta, Bengal, and rural India serve as case studies of cultural change, the tensions between tradition and modernity, and the influence of Western education and ideas. In this way, his private experiences mirror the collective journey of a nation grappling with identity, reform, and the struggle for freedom.
Chaudhuri also weaves into his autobiography reflections on Indian nationalism, literature, and philosophy, alongside observations of British culture. His analysis of Indian politics, particularly his controversial admiration for aspects of British rule, positions the book as a cultural history of colonial India rather than a purely personal memoir.
Thus, the work functions on two levels: it narrates the making of an individual, but at the same time, it documents the making of modern India. By embedding his personal story within the broader socio-political context, Chaudhuri turns autobiography into a historical and cultural document.
Q.7 Write a note on the changing trends in Post-Independence Indian Writing in English.
Answer :
Changing Trends in Post-Independence Indian Writing in English
Post-Independence Indian Writing in English reflects the country’s journey from colonial subjugation to the challenges of modern nationhood. After 1947, writers shifted their focus from colonial encounters to issues of identity, tradition, and modernity, portraying the complexities of a newly independent nation.
In fiction, writers like R.K. Narayan, Mulk Raj Anand, and Raja Rao laid the foundation with themes of tradition, rural life, and cultural identity. Later, novelists such as Anita Desai, Arun Joshi, and Kamala Markandaya turned inward, exploring psychology, alienation, and the clash between modern values and tradition. From the 1980s onwards, authors like Salman Rushdie, Vikram Seth, Amitav Ghosh, and Arundhati Roy transformed the landscape through experimentation with narrative techniques, magical realism, and global themes, making Indian English fiction internationally recognized.
In poetry, post-Independence trends moved away from the romanticism of Toru Dutt or Sarojini Naidu to the urban realism and irony of poets like Nissim Ezekiel, Kamala Das, A.K. Ramanujan, and Jayanta Mahapatra. Their poetry reflected individualism, sexuality, alienation, and socio-political concerns in free verse, marking a sharp break from the past.
In drama, playwrights such as Asif Currimbhoy, Vijay Tendulkar, Girish Karnad, and Mahesh Dattani experimented with form and content, addressing issues like gender, caste, history, and modernity, blending Indian performance traditions with modern theatre.
Another significant trend is the emergence of diasporic and global voices—Jhumpa Lahiri, Bharati Mukherjee, and Rohinton Mistry—who write about displacement, migration, hybridity, and cultural negotiation. Women’s writing also gained prominence, with writers like Shashi Deshpande, Anita Nair, and Arundhati Roy highlighting feminist perspectives and female subjectivity.
Overall, Post-Independence Indian Writing in English evolved from regional and nationalist concerns to cosmopolitan, experimental, and global themes. It became a platform not only for exploring Indian identity but also for situating it in a wider world context.
References :
CHAUDHURI, NIRAD C. The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian. 1st ed., University of California Press, 1951. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.2430527. Accessed 22 Sept. 2025.
Sreenivasulu Reddy, P., and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. “A Critical Analysis of ‘The Hindu View of Life’ by Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan.” Online International Interdisciplinary Research Journal, vol. IV, no. II, journal-article, Mar. 2014, p. 337. www.oiirj.org/oiirj/mar-apr2014/45.pdf?authuser=0.
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